This research is about the Turkic Influence on Indian Architecture. Itis a study of infusing the cultural heritage of India with new energy and revitalizing it towards new directions and broader, vast frontiers as evinced by their art forms, such as architecture and painting. The author decided upon architecture to illustrate and elucidate the enriching contributions of Turkic architects and artisans to the Indian Architecture.
Turkic Influence on Indian Architecture (AD1196-1555AD)is a study of infusing the cultural heritage of India with new energy and revitalizing it towards new directions and broader, vast frontiers as evinced by their art forms, such as architecture and painting. I have decided upon architecture to illustrate and elucidate the enriching contributions of Turkic architects and artisans to the Indian Architecture.
Displacement of population in Central Asia due to their power conflicts caused inter-regional migrations to Indian subcontinent. There have always been very close commercial, cultural and even spiritual contacts among the population of these regions These bonds always remained very strong because the rulers of these areas came from Central Asia and sought inspiration from their homeland. The artisans, architects, craftsmen and calligraphers from Central Asian land migrated to these areas, bringing with them valuable knowledge and expertise to use under their new patronage.
It is therefore, no surprising that the early medieval architecture of Indian subcontinent has very strong similarities with the Central Asian art in construction, design and its decorative form. There are number of monuments in Indian subcontinent including present day area of Pakistan, which clearly reflects the direct inspiration from the architecture of central Asia.
India has a very long history of contact with people beyond the north-western frontier. Starting from Harappan times and continuing through the Phoenician, Persian Greek and Roman period. The routes which traversed Central Asia; provided channels for profitable trade and for the missionary spread of Buddhism. The character of the infiltration from Central Asia into India which lead to the establishment of Kushana rule should therefore be seen in the context of a prior acquaintance with India on the part of Central Asian peoples, they had already had some interaction with Indian culture on there home ground.
The significant edifices of the proposed study are embellished with decorative features, like calligraphic motifs, floral patterns, triangular framing of decoration in the bands; cornices made by narrowly placed horizontal bands of carvings are all directing towards the conclusion that the craftsmen and architectural traditions from Turkic Central Asia are experimented and illuminated with Indian Art within the original form, before it would have been possible to established a style of its own distinctive feature.An art historian describes this technique and decoration as “.... inscription, arabesque and geometric patterns create tremendous excitement for a serious scholar of Islamic art.For a genuine stimulus these decorative have talismanic appeal.”1 (I have examined the cultural and aesthetic qualities of this novel art and analyse how it took the final shape.
When we speak about Islamic architecture in India, we trace to the foreign and Indian architectural tradition as demonstrated in temple architecture. I have attempted to define the reasons and purpose behind the choices finally made in architectural style in the period under study.
The history of Islamic2 Architecture of India is a confluence of the Turkic Central Asian Art & Architecture, before its rendezvous with its major tradition, the traditional Indian Art & Architecture. With this point in the mind the broad lines of development have emerged and one will visualize major tradition with Islamic culture in a concise manner. The religious blanket term quite obscure the variety of ethnic cultural groups that were penetrated India. It would be enlightening to emphasise the rich and varied cultural amalgam that was to interact with the Indian culture and not only as an Islamic culture. Surely if art is the distilled essence of a people, the final expression of a culture, to appreciate the full significance of art forms, we would need to know about the people and their style by which these were created. This would necessitate backtrack historically and geographically that is the total view again.
When we talk about the development of Islamic architecture in India we are implying a historical institution including the places which fall beyond the present day post-partition India. These areas are in the modern provinces of Punjab and Sindh in present day Pakistan. It is interesting to note that these areas had an architectural spectrum much ahead of the Delhi Sultanate,3 which provided a splendid path for the development of architectural activities of the Turks of Delhi. Some of the oldest surviving monuments of the area, especially tombs and mosques, present remarkable examples of building design, construction systems, interior and exterior decoration and application of motifs in geometrical and arabesque patterns.4
The significant and permanent military movement of Turkic people dates from the 11th century, and was carried on by various Turkish dynasties that arose indirectly from the ruins of the Abbasids. The road of conquest was prepared by Sultan Mahmud of Gazna5 (998-1030 AD) who established Punjab as the easternmost province of his empire. The only structures, which have survived the ravages of time, are the west wall of the tomb of Saif- uddaula Mahmud near village Zair in Parachinar (Punjab) and a mosque in Giri in the Margalla hill near Taxila.6 The wall of the tomb of Saif-uddaula provides us with useful information about the Gaznavid architecture.7 It consists of a tall-recessed four-centred arch which accommodates a small window. The arrangement was probably repeated on the other three sides. The arch was constructed in stone using lime mortar. The arch of this tomb is the earliest surviving example of a true arch in the entire subcontinent.8 According to Dr. Chughtai, the area formed a part of a large Muslim township during the Gaznavid period, where a memorial named Fatehabad was also established.9 The use of lime mortar in this tomb is remarkable. We find it in continued use over the following successive architecture in India. Today, the only surviving monuments in Gazna are the tomb of Mahmud and the two minars or towers of victory. The minars are interesting as prototypes of the Qutb Minar in Delhi. The richly carved doors of the tomb of Mahmud were brought from Ghazni by the British in 1842 and are now in the Red Fort at Agra. The doors are of wood, divided in panels and adorned with six pointed stars and geometrical figures. The Arabesque design of the doors is noteworthy: it became a source of inspiration for later development in India. Victory of Mohammad Gauri in 1191 AD in the battle of Tarain was a turning point in the arena of Indian history. Turks brought several changes in various fields of life in India. They brought with them their developed architectural style, largely based on the arcuate10 system of construction. On the other hand, Indian artisans were skilled in the building of the trabeate11 and corbelled style. The successful amalgamation of two different styles achieved here can rarely be seen elsewhere than in India. Because of this fusion, most of the Turkish creations in India could be distinguished from Central Asian architecture12
First they built a congregational mosque known as Quwwat-ul-Islam (Might of Islam). This mosque was founded in 1191 AD.13 This mosque was at first a plain enclosure but afterwards a large screen was erected on the side of the maqsura14 and arches appear here for the first time. This screen gave a texture of traditional mosque. At first sight, this screen with pointed arches seems to be of the purest Central Asian style. Its curved shape is very much similar to the arcuate style (true style), but a closer examination of the construction of these arches reveals that they are constructed in corbelled style - a common technique used in ancient India for building of Buddhist viharas.15 Instead of the use of keystone and voussoir16(which are necessary to built a arcuate or true arch, common in Central Asia) these arches are built through piles of horizontal courses with each course slightly overlapping the one below. The arched shape has been achieved by carving off ends of these courses.17 The same process is revealed again in the decorative carving on the façade of the screen.
Aibak’s son-in-law and successor, Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD), doubled the area of Quwwat-ul- Islam mosque by extending the maqsura and the screen at both ends and built an outer riwaq (cloister) which enclosed the original mosque of Aibak. The ornamentation of the screen put up by Iltutmish is different from Aibak’s. The motif of the latter is closely related to those seen in Gaurid structures, for example at the Shahi Madarsa in Gharigistan.18 The arches of this screen do not have the same proportions as seen in the earlier screen built by Aibak. Here, Quranic inscriptions are inter-woven with arabesques, a style known as Saracenic art.19 The arches are still corbelled. This extension work is more refined and established in design and reflects the Turkish victors as beginning to settle more comfortably in their new settlement. The third main contribution in Quwwat- ul-Islam mosque was made by Alauddin Khalji (1296 –1316 AD). He repeated Iltutmish’s plan by again doubling the length of the liwan of the mosque and built a concentric riwaq. Some notable features used by his predecessors were preserved to continue the stylistic unity of the whole.20 Attached to the mosque is the famous Qutub Minar named after its founder Qutubddin Aibak.21 As originally designed, it was 225 feet in height, and comprised four storeys divided from one another by richly decorated balconies and further embellished by vertical flutings and horizontal bands of calligraphy in Naqsh. The first storey was the work of Aibak and the rest three were completed by his successor Iltutmish.
The Qutub minar has a Central Asian ancestry. Kutlug - Timur minaret at Kunya-Urgench has a strong resemblance to the Qutub Minar. The bands inscribed with Naqsh at Qutub Minar afford a delicate relief to the plain fluted masonry of the great shaft. The most interesting and effective feature is the boldly projecting balconies at every storey.
There is a minar at Jar Qurgan near Tarmiz, built to appear as if 16 round columns are tied together. This has a strong resemblance to the Qutub Minar.22 The minars at Ghazni can also be said to have some resemblance to it. The ultimate origin of this minar is to be found in the old Ziggurat of the Mesopotamians. The Abbassid Caliph Wathiq-ibn-Mutasim built a mosque at Samara near Baghdad in 842 AD with a minaret attached to it. Compared with this mosque, the decoration of the Qutub Minar is consistently Central Asian in character from the base to its top. The Abbassid style of the minaret was copied by the square minar attached to the mosque of Ibn-Tulum at Cairo in the year 990 AD, as is recorded by the historian Maqrizi.23 However, the hybrid style of Firuzshah Tughlaq’s later additions to the Qutub Minar is noticeably distinct. He added the fifth storey and the novel style of decoration as well as the material used is clearly apparent. The bands inscribed with Naqsh at Qutub Minar afford a delicate relief to the plain fluted masonry of the great shaft. The most interesting and effective feature is the boldly projecting balconies at every storey, supported as early types of stalactite that is such a characteristic of early Islamic architectural decorative features, common to the Qutub Minar in India and the Al-Hamara in Spain.24
When we look at the aesthetic sense of the Minar, Prof. Mujeeb rightly observes, “The Turks wanted to create a symbol of power and stability. With its upward surge, expressed in the taper and in the almost organic emergence of one storey from another, the Qutub Minar is such a symbol. But Hindu sculpture also put its stamp on it, and those who have seen it will know that beauty is the only power that endures.”25
Iltutmish’s tomb is situated on the northern side of Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Sayyid Ahmad Khan26 suggest that it was built by his successor and daughter Razia Sultana (1236 – 1239 AD) while Cunningham says that it was built in 1235 shortly before the Sultana’s death.27 This tomb is a square structure. There are differences
among historians about the dome of this tomb. Sayyid Ahmad Khan is the first art historian to have given a reference from a contemporary source about the presence of the roof.28 He quotes from the Futuhat-i-Firozshahi to prove that Firoz Shah Tughlaq repaired the tomb. But some historians believe that the tomb never had a roof.29
Iltutmish’s tomb is one of the oldest tombs in India. The oldest known tomb in north India, especially in Delhi is that of Iltutmish’s son Nasiruddin Mohamad, who died before him in 1228-29 AD. It is called the tomb of Sultan Ghari.30 Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266–87 AD) built a palace called Darul-Aman and founded a city called Ghiyaspur.31 Sangeen Baig also describes its position as near the dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya. Now there is no trace to identify the area definitively. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq is situated in the area of Qutub Delhi and presently stands in a ruinous condition. As an art historian remarked, “First-time presence of arches built on the true style (arcuate style) is a Turk innovation and is the first step towards development of Indo-Islamic architecture in India.”32 The appearance of arcuate arches in Balban’s tomb marks a definitive advance and development in architectural activity in north India.
Under the Khalji (1296-1316) architectural development assumed renewed importance. The effect of further development in style is clearly evidenced in the two principle monuments of Alauddin regime: the Jamat Khana mosque (1311 AD) at the dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya and the Alai Darwaza at the Qutub Complex. The central structure of Jamat Khana mosque was built by Khizr Khan, son of Alauddin Khalji.33 Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s expanded the mosque and built another liwan on both sides of the central structure.34
While studying the architectural features of a particular building, much importance is to be given to two distinct features. One is the style and the technique used and the second is the aesthetic taste of the particular building. In this context, if we examine the Alai Darwaza we find that the well proportioned, beautiful arched doorways and the bridging of the four corners with the help of squinches35 are in true scientific style, while the decorative ornamentation appears like a piece of sculpture. This gives a unique character to this art which became a common feature for successive dynasties. As R. Nath observes, “Alai Darwaza is the first Muslim monument in India which marks the absorption and assimilation of several inspirations in its body fabric and which revolutionized the whole art of building by the proclaimed success of its innovations.”36 Structurally, Alai Darwaza is a marvel of inspired simplicity. The arches of the three entrances are so exquisitely proportioned that they are equally beautiful whether seen from the outside or inside.37 It is not only a monumental structure but is one that later builders looked upon as a source of inspiration. This is a work of practiced hands and of minds thoroughly versed in the art of creating pleasing composition of architecture and sculpture. The other monuments built in the Khalji period outside Delhi are in Bayana, near Agra, Jalore (Rajasthan), Khambayat, Patan and Siddhpur in Gujarat, at Bhilsa in Malwa and elsewhere which represent the Sultanate style in regional areas.
The Tughlaq (1321 – 1414 AD) architecture comprised the tomb, small city and forts such as the tomb and fort at Tughlaqabad and the twin city and palace called Jahanpanah (The Refuge of the World) etc. A major work for which, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25 AD) was responsible in Multan is the mausoleum of the saint Rukn-i- Alam. The tomb of Rukn-i-Alam is one of the most impressive buildings in this part.38 This tomb is also a first example of octagonal layout.39 This design is reproduced with a novel layout in Khan-i-Jahan Tilangani’s tomb built in the 14th century in Delhi. The monument maintains a slope in every component. The walls have a pronounced slope or batter. Some features of the Rukn-i-Alam tomb, specially the battering walls and corner turrets are reflected in the walls of Tughlaqabad fort and Ghiyasuddin’s tomb. The interior of the tomb is also very impressive. The principle ornamentation is worked out in cut brick work with diaper patterns. The superb surface decoration of this tomb was also a source of inspiration for the successive monuments of Sayyids and Lodis.
If we confine architecture only within the framework of religion, period or region, we tend to overlook certain important features and their basic concepts. In the medieval period, the monuments that came into existence are marked by an amalgamation of different artistic concepts. Present in different areas and regions of the country, these silent historical monuments, which, more or less, have survived the vagaries of a thousand years of Time, stand witness to the skills of their architects and artisans, who conceived, planned and brought them into existence with meticulous care. Today these monuments stand with their past glory and have become an integral part of the cultural heritage of our country.