Comparative analysis of emerging states in modern context: Kazakhstan and the UAE

Today’s modern society has seen a number of economic, social and political changes, and the current environment is one with increasing harmony. There is no longer the risk of a nuclear war, and previously undeveloped regions have become more advanced and industrialized. Equality is prevailing in surprising locations and the authoritarian governmental systems of the past 40-50 years have faded.

However, it has been argued that the modernisation of the world is leading to a loss of importance of the state, which is causing fear for many individuals. This modernisation has been driven largely by technology, and has manifested itself in the form of international and social media, violent terrorist attacks and new, foreign markets. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the cultural values once linked to specific regions are now merging to form one commonly-held cultural system; thus decreasing the importance of the state and national values. 

It has been argued that the concept of a nation-state, which is typically underpinned by the patriotic beliefs of its society and legislation, as well as the influx of international media, is diminishing the connection to the home country. International media and better educational opportunities have led to a loss of totalitarianism. However, it has also been contested that these phenomena have led to a chaotic lack of authority and more cultural feuds. Furthermore, the emergence of globalization means that leaders are less able to determine the economies and policies of their own countries. Additionally, globalization could have provided the opportunity for leaders to use the economy of the country to follow separate agendas.

‘Globalizatio is a process i which the co strai ts o geography o social a d cultural arra geme ts recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are recedi g’ Walters 1996 (in Hague and Harrop 2001)

Davis (1997) defined the nation-state as a nation with one belief system, one set of traditions and customs, and a united sense of belonging. Smelser and Baltes (2001) have added that the purpose of belonging to a nation (i.e. having a ‘nationality’) is to deepen the relationship between the individual and the country. Furthermore, the introduction of a Welfare State and its links to the politics of society means that individuals are further connected to the nation. Smelser and Baltes also argued that the modern concept of the nation is based on 19th century terminology, and that it considered to be essentially comprised of its population and policies. The relationship between the state and the nation is now thought of as the nation-state.

The modern world has seen the introduction of far-reaching networks, which enable links within countries, between countries, and over borders. There has been a decrease in close networks over the past few hundred years. Shaw (1991; in Mann 1997) proposed that these global networks could have been driven by geographical- political influences. Alternatively, the emergence of neo-liberalists, feminists, socialists and even religious groups, could have been drivers of one new national identity. However, global networks are not always based on economies. Additionally, despite the fact that a large number of people consider them to be the same thing, there can be a difference between global networks (i.e. countries around the world) and transnational networks (i.e. without borders).

This paper aims to assess the contemporary perspective of governmental systems. In order to achieve this, it will provide a contrasting analysis between the structures of two developing countries: the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Kazakhstan.

Kazakhstan

Due to the large number of ethnicities that fled from the country when Kazakhstan was dictated by Stalin, Kazakhstan’s population is now comprised of a range of different cultural and ethnic groups. Despite the array of cultures and ethnicities, and the fact that Kazakhstan is Central Asia’s biggest country, Kazakhstan has the least amount of citizens. The Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2013) report that Kazakhstan is comprised of 131 different ethnic groups and 16.6 million citizens; also making it one of the top two biggest regions out of were once the Soviet Republics. Kazakhstan was an autonomous republic, and was created in 1920 as part of the Russian Federation. Only in 1936 Kazakhstan became the Soviet Republic. In 1991, Kazakhstan became independent and joined the Commonwealth of Independent States, and disassociated itself with the Soviet Union. Officially Kazakhstan is a unitary state and has had one president, NursultanNazarbayev, pursuing a policy of ‘economy first and then politics’. Knox (2008) states that Kazakhstan is attempting to change its political system and become more contemporary in order to improve public service provision.

France’s Constitution of 1958 provided a basis for Kazakhstan to form a presidential republic, in which the government actors and legislation have different authorities. Heywood (1997) explained that under this rule, the Assembly is not permitted to wield authority over the President; nor are they able to take the President out of office. Kazakhstan deemed it essential to adopt a President to navigate these risks and to obtain power over its own economy. Knox (2008) stated that this decision was perceived to be a responsible method of reacting to the damage caused by the disintegration of the Soviet Union. It was vital that Kazakhstan responded quickly and confidently.

Both the Parliament (including the Senate and Mazhilis) and the President of Kazakhstan are chosen through elections; local elections for maslikhats (local representative bodies) are held every five years. According to Legislationline (2013) elections are carried out by the Central Election Commission of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The Kazakhstan Parliament is comprised of 107 members of The Assembly (9 seats determined by the Assembly of Kazakhstani Nation, and 98 chosen as a reflection of regional votes), and a 47-strong Senate. Members of The Assembly can remain in Parliament for 5 years. The Kazakhstan Elections (2013) reports that 7 members of the Senate are chosen by the President and the remaining 40 are chosen by The Assemblies of each region. The latter can remain in Parliament for 6 years, under double-seat constituencies, of which half are renewed on a 2-year rotation.

The Commonwealth of Independent States (2013) show that Kazakhstan is involved with the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Partnership for Peace. This is one example of Kazakhstan’s peaceful involvement with neighboring countries and policies. Further examples include Kazakhstan’s membership in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the United Nations.

The Continental / Roman-German legal system provides the basis for the legal systems of many European countries and Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan’s legal system is based on a single hierarchy of legal sources, according to Kazakhstan’s Adilet (2013) and Prime Group (2013) websites. Central laws are the main determining factor and have the most authority. Akorda (2013) reports that the legal system in Kazakhstan is comprised of Kazakhstan’s duties and foreign agreements, as well as Constitution-based traditions and legislature; following Article 4 of the Constitution. Additionally, the Supreme Court of the Republic of Kazakhstan and its Constitutional Council shape the country’s legal system.

Kazakhstan’s judicial system also involves local courts and the Supreme Court, which were founded under the Constitution. The eGov (2013) website explains that Kazakhstan’s local courts are comprised of courts in certain districts and military bases, as well as courts in certain regions, such as the Military Court of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the City Court of the Capital of the Republic, and so on. Kazakhstan’s Supreme Court is the most powerful and informative judicial agent when dealing with civil issues and law-breaking.

The UAE

Prior to the formation of the UAE in December 1971, Ras al-Khaima, Ajman, Al Fujaira, Sharjah, Umm al- Quwain, Dubai and Abu Dhabi were independent emirates. Although the UAE is not as sizeable as other countries, it has substantial wealth, with the International Monetary Fund (2013) reporting the per capita income in 2013 as just over USD$69,798, and the UAE Government Statistics (2013) stating that there are over 8.2 million people living in the 83,600sq km of the UAE. The United Arab Emirates is a federation with absolute hereditary monarchies and governed by a Federal Supreme Council.

The UAE Interact (2013) website reports that following the formation of the UAE, a Constitution was created in which the authority of each of emirate was determined. This was deemed crucially important for the success of both the new UAE, and for the satisfaction of the individual emirates, which placed more emphasis over the issues most relevant to them.

UAE Interact (2013) further reports that a variety of issues were left to the authority of each emirate. However, the UAE would be responsible for issues such as air travel (including airplane paperwork and traffic management, etc.), communications, postal services, national currency, schooling, public health provisions, immigrants, military, international dealings, nationality, banks, working conditions, deportation of law-breakers and managing the borders of the UAE’s seas. These responsibilities were part of Articles 120 and 121 of the Constitution, created in May 1996 by the Federal Supreme Council. ‘Equality, liberty, rule of law, presumption of innocence in legal procedures, inviolability of the home, freedom of movement, freedom of opinion and speech, freedom of communication, freedom of religion, freedom of council and association, freedom of occupation, freedom to be elected to office and others onto all citizens, within the limit of the law’ are fixed in the Constitution of the UAE (uaecabinet.ae 2013).

UAE Interact (2013) also suggested that the UAE’s future growth and security has been secured via the combination of the contemporary and historical policies. The current legal system incorporates the Federal National Council, the Federal Supreme Court, the Council of Ministers and the Supreme Council, from which a President and Vice President are chosen for a number of 5-year-periods. In November 2009, the Supreme Council renewed H.H. Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan’s Presidency for a further 5 years.

UAE Interact (2013) also illustrate that the leaders of the Supreme Council’s individual emirates have been granted the authority to change and implement legislature. Therefore, the Supreme Council is able to undertake many political and legal tasks, such as determining the policies of the UAE, providing backing for the legal system of the UAE and supporting the election, resignation or removal of the UAE’s Prime Minister. The UAE’s legal system was created on a foundation of Sharia’s dual legal system. Additionally, the Prime Minister leads the executive power of the Federation (i.e. The Council of Ministers). The Prime Minister (who also becomes the Vice President) is elected by the President, and then nominates a Cabinet, which is submitted to the President for approval. There have been significant efforts made to change UAE politics, due to the speedy evolution of the UAE’s economies and societies. The aim of these efforts is to encourage the UAE to react with more urgency and responsibility in order to prepare it, and its people, for the potential risks of modernization.

One of the most crucial elements of change was the 2007 Federal National Council elections and the introduction of the UAE Government Strategy, which aimed to provide a basis for a revolutionized period of public administration, as per a statement released by Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid, reported on the UAE Interact (2013) website. Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid further added that the shifting status of the modern world, along with its consequential hurdles, encourages a new form of cognition regarding public administration and foreign policy. The UAE Government Strategy aims to provide a consolidation of various attempts to reform policies, backed with thorough research and moving forward with a tactical structure, well-considered aims and a transparent recognition of regional and federal attempts to create change. In addition, it aims to better the abilities of Parliamentary members to make important decisions, and become more involved in policies. In doing this, the UAE’s governments would become more useful, more contemporary and better able to serve the UAE’s population.

Modern context

Sorensen(2010; in Caramani 2011) suggested that these states are operating within a modern context; amalgamating the best elements of post-modernism, modernism and diminishing the flaws of post-colonialism. This amalgamation means that the states should be able to adopt a more flexible and responsive approach to the modernization that occurs alongside the globalization process. Globalization is influenced largely by a number of elements, such as influential organizations and governments, and is not stable across countries, regions, districts or nations. Holm and Sorensen (1995; in Caramani 2011) explained that globalization has a significant impact on international relationships, including their cultures, policies and economies.

In context of the globalization the UAE and Kazakhstan are involved in global market where transnational relations are dominant in developing their economy as well as the reputation on the world arena. Transnational companies are interested in emerging countries especially where oil-industry is the main source of development. Furthermore, international relationships play a large part in shaping how the rest of the globe perceives a nation. Because of this, the concept of a global market is largely comprised of the effects of the globalization of the economy. The World Trade Organization (2013) revealed that the UAE became a part of the WTO on 10 April 1996. Furthermore, the GDP of the UAE has been influenced greatly by the gas and oil industries, as well as the rising popularity of Dubai as a tourist destination. Because of its previous involvement with the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan has a strong manufacturing and agricultural industry, as well as supplying gas and oil. Kazakhstan is recently joined the WTO; however, the World Trade Organization (2013) website reveals that there are a number of hurdles standing in Kazakhstan’s way. For example, Kazakhstan must first address queries surrounding the investment measures of trade, technical policies, VAT manipulation, exportation taxes, tariffs and non-private corporations.

Conclusion

By the end of this day, evidently both Kazakhstan and the UAE have a great future as a part of global civil society. But the question is which country has more perspectives to respond the current standards of globalization process. Contrasting two countries with different types of government shows that democratization pulls Kazakhstan and the UAE in opposite directions throughout history: modern Western values vs. traditional Soviet values and Western values vs. traditional Islamic values. Predominantly, Kazakhstan is setting values in democratic context, holding presidential and parliamentary elections. In addition, these values are reflected in developing civil society in the country, providing freedom of speech and choice.

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