The research work analyzes the influence of metalinguistic processing of geographic names in Kazakhstan. Any person or traveler wants to understand the meaning of a geographic name, when he sees familiar or unfamiliar geographic names during his journey. Thus, a traveler seeks for coincidence of geographic names with the words he already knows, and then he pays attention to the place and its history. The process of understanding and remembering geographic names takes place in different way in people’s minds. Some people pay attention to the coincidence of geographic names with the names of object or phenomenon, some people associate them with the names of heroes of epics.
Names, especially toponymic names are closely connected with the history of the country or locality. Kazakhstani respondents usually associate toponymic names with the historic events. The main reason of this is the relations between Kazakh and Mongol, Kazakh and Kalmyk and Kazakh and Russia. The close relation between these peoples led to wide spreading of foreign names in the territory of Kazakhstan. Such names as Petropavl, Oskemen, Pavlodar, Semei, Ablaketka, Kaskelen, Shamalgan, Boraldai, etc are the evidence of this process.The results of the research allows to assume that the respondents associate names with the geographic information. For instance, Karagandy, Shymbulak, Keles, Betpakdala, Arkalyk, Saryarkaand others.The results of the research can be further grouped into several subgroups.
Introduction
The presentation of the relation of a language and reasoning, a language and mind is clearly seen from speaking activity or the ability of a person to express his idea. This requires considering the language from an anthropocentric viewpoint.
Cognition of the environment, perceiving and overlapping it with one’s personal opinion, as well as evaluating are the signs of reflection in simple metalinguistic consciousness. We define the following terms for use in the research work: consciousness, linguistic consciousness, metalanguage, metalinguistic consciousness, simple metalinguistic consciousness, reflex, reflection and others.
Consciousnesscanbeconsideredasaphilosophic notion, even as a mind or intellect. Consciousness describes mutual relationships between everything around us. Consequently, consciousness is the highest form of intellectual activity. Men regulate all types of relationships with the environment through the consciousness. Consciousness also plays great role in subjective cases of intellectual activity.
Consciousness discloses world view, that comprises a person and his all types activity (Leont’yev, 1975: 25).
Some scientists perceive consciousness as inner cognition/knowledge and belief (Duwal, Wicklund, 1972), mind and intellect (Mandler, 1975).
Y.A. Sorokin notes that it is necessary to be guided by notions such as reasoning, intellect, rationality and irrationality, cognition and reflection in researching the notion of consciousness (Sorokin, 1994).
The problem of defining the notion of consciousness is one of the main and complex problems in philosophy. The reason of this is that it is impossible to see, measure and perceive by senses. Consciousness is one of the factors that differentiate people from animals. Undoubtedlyconsciousness serves as a binder between a human being and the environment.
To a certain extent man defines the variety of the relation between himself and the environment, world by a language. Through a language man meets the rational and relational requirements and those of the whole life, his needs to obtain necessary information.
Language is a universal means of interaction between consciousness and environment. It is also an aspect of linguistic material which studies the function of a language and speech as a presentation of mental view of a linguistic community. Linguistic consciousness is not an object of this work; it is a subject of the research work. Linguistic consciousness arises in an individual as a result of interaction.
Linguistic consciousness directly influences on establishing text, linguistic intellect, and then on metalanguage and metatext (Shumarina, 2011: 40). Metalanguage (from Greek meta – after) is one of the main concepts of contemporary logics and theoretical linguistics. Metalanguage is a language of linguistics, it is a linguistic lexis. Metalanguageis used in studying varied natural, mathematic languages, in investigating relations between languages of different levels, and in studying relations between the language studied and subjective branch, which is represented by it, structures of sentences, and its relations with other languages. Language-object studies iconic structure of a sentence, it proves theorems on peculiarities of presentation and studies its relation with other languages through a metalanguage.
R. Jacobson evaluates the metalinguistic function of a language and says that: «…metalanguage is not only a necessary research tool used by logicians and linguists, it also plays an important role in our everyday language. ... We use metalanguage, without realizing metalinguistic nature of our actions. If the speaker or the listener needs to check whether they use the same code, the subject of a speech becomes the code itself; it performs a metalinguistic function here» (Jacobson, 1975:201). It is possible to define the notion of metalinguistic consciousness on the basis of above mentioned notions as consciousness and metalanguage. It is a complex of cognition and presentation of formal and notional interrelations, functions and development of a language and its structural elements. Thus, it is an opinion, description or discussion on any linguistic phenomena or linguistic object.
Reflex (from Latin reflexus) is a terminology of biology. It is an answer of an organism to inner or outer stimuli with the help of a central nervous system. In linguistics the phenomena of reflex can be defined as presentation of any subject or phenomena in a language, its influence on human consciousness. Reflection (from Latin reflexio) is individual’s actions of paying attention to himself, his consciousness and activities and trying to feel and cognate himself. Thus, reflex is a common notion, a reaction of any organism, reflection is comparatively narrow notion used only in relation to human-being. Shumarina says the following on the functions and peculiarities of reflection: «Reflection is a mental operation, which takes place in a ‘silent’ way, but it can be realized verbally in the form of expressions-interpretations (Shumarina, 2011: 42).
These terms are the main concepts of this research work, as it aims at defining toponymic reflection in a simple metalinguistic consciousness, which comprises these concepts.
Consequently, the aim, tasks, object and materials of the research work have been defined. The object of the work is toponymic names in the territory of Kazakhstan.
Kazakhstan is the ninth largest country in the world, with a deep history. It is situated in the central part of Eurasia. It occupies 2% of the territory of the whole world and 5% of the Eurasian territory. The Caspian Sea, Mangistau Peninsula, ranges of mountains such as Tien Shan, ZhongarAlatau, Tarbagatai, rivers and lakes such as Oral, Zhaiyk, Syrdaria, Amudariya, Balkash and others have attracted interests of antique philosophers �erodotus, Alexander the Great, Ptolemy, Strabo, as well as Chinese, Arabian, Russian and European researchers and these toponymic names frequently met in the scientific works of most of them.
There are well-founded reasons of selecting toponyms of Kazakhstan as an object of research, which include numerous geographical objects. The fact that during centuries various geographical names of Kazakhstani territory have changed under political and economical circumstances requires to study their etymology. Etymological research of toponyms has attracted not only geographers and historians, but also linguistics.
Toponymic myths and legends reveal not only the reasons of geographic names, but also narrate historical occasions from the past of the folk. The main object of any historical myth is not to narrate the origin of the geographic names, but to try to reveal the historical facts connected with the geographical names (Pangereev, 2010: 162).
In old times myth sand legends were transmitted from generation to generation in oral form. Unfortunately, this tradition has been lost. Myths and legends underwent modifications under different circumstances and as a result of narrators’ intentions. �owever, the anthropocentric viewpoint which has been an object of linguistics assisted to reveal several changes in this field of science.
Methods
Methods of the research work can be considered by separating into several stages. To determine toponymic reflection in the view of simple metalinguistic consciousness, at first, it is necessary to analyze means that define the relationships between toponymic names and the owner of simple consciousness. To determine the opinion and interpretation of a respondent on the geographic object a method of questionnaire has been used. It is possible to see simple consciousness owners’ defining specific names anonymously. The advantage of this method is that respondents give their anonymous answers in a relaxed atmosphere. The disadvantage is that respondents tick a «do not know» choice of a question when they are not familiar with the geographic name. Consequently, all requirements are not fulfilled.
The second problem is to identify the owner of a simple consciousness in order to define the toponymic refection in a simple metalinguistic consciousness. This is a person with a high or higher education, not a geographer or linguist, who does not research geographic names and toponymic names from the etymological perspective.
The third problem is that to define the number and importance of toponyms to be included into a questionnaire. It is impossible to include all toponyms into a questionnaire, if to take into account that there are more than hundred thousand toponyms in Kazakhstan. For that reason it was necessary to classify geographic names and divide them into administrative and regional sections.
Toponymswere classified according to their type as oronyms (names of mountains), hydronyms (names of rivers, lakes) and oikonyms (names of cities, towns, regions). The questions of the questionnaire were developed on the basis of five parts of Kazakhstan (Western Kazakhstan, Northern Kazakhstan, Eastern Kazakhstan, Southern Kazakhstan and Central Kazakhstan) and 14 regions according to administrative and regional division.
The selection principles of toponyms of the questionnaire are the following:
- Names familiar to most of the people of Kazakhstan;
- Geographic names familiar to the population of a specific region;
- Geographic names whose etymology were stormy debated among scientists;
- Toponyms with simple naming;
- Geographic names with unclear and extraordinary meanings.
In the territory of some regions there are less toponyms compared with the other regions.Because of this fact, it was decided to include five names into the questionnaire. Taking more than five geographic names may cause some problems; some regions do not have so many geographic names, especially, astionyms, and respondents would have problems with giving the answers. Including less than five names leads to volume reduction and ignoring of the information.
The aim of the questionnaire is to define the toponymic reflection of the simple consciousness owner through the given toponyms.
Resultsand discussion
Respondents were suggested 14 online questionnaires. Respondents selected from the questions about their homeland or about 14 regions of Kazakhstan.The rules and requirements of the questionnaire were explained before starting the answering the questionnaire.
After the respondents answered the questionnaire, each answer was analyzed and included into the list of names. The aim of the research was to obtain at least 10 answers from each questionnaire, questionnaires with more than ten answers were not analyzed in order to provide the balance. Totally 350 names were taken into account, 25 toponyms were used in each questionnaire. If to assume that 10 answers were obtained from 14 completed questionnaires, the total number of answers reached 3500. �owever, such answers as «do not know» and «did not hear about it» (1999 answers) were excluded from the total number of answers. Consequently, the number of informative answers is 1501. The number of answers to the last question about the respondent’s homeland is 173, so the total number of answers reached 1674.
In the diagram Kazakhstan is divided into five parts. �owever, Kazakhstan has fourteen administrative and political regions. Western Kazakhstan includes Western Kazakhstanregion, Mangystau region, Atyrau region, Aktobe region, Northern Kazakhstan includes Northen Kazakhstan region, Kostanai region, Pavlodar region, Akmola region, Eastern Kazakhstan includes Eastern Kazakhstan region, Southern Kazakhstan includes Southern Kazakhstan region, Almaty region, Kyzylorda region, Central Kazakhstan includes Karagandy region.
Diagram 1 – Common statistic information of the questionnaire
*A – The total number of the answers received: (14 regions, 25 names in each region, total sum of respondents from each regions is 3500)
*B – Number of respondents who answered «do not know»
*C – Answers with the complete information
*C1 – Answers with the partial information
*D – Number of answers with the information about one’s homeland
*E – Total number of answers with the information (С+C1+D or E=(A-B)+D)
Analysis and conclusion
As a result of the analysis of the questionnaire answers, it is clearly seen that an owner of a simple metalinguistic consciousness lacks of geographic and onomastic knowledge, and does not think about it. The answers ‘I do not know’ and ‘I have not heard about it’ are the evidence of it. The another reason of it is that respondents are born and grew up in different regions and they unfamiliar with the local geographic names.
Apart from this, tourism in Kazakhstan is less developed compared with other countries. Consequently, lessworkisdoneonthefamiliarization and adverticement of local picturesque places as mountains, rivers and other sightseeings. Complete and relevant answers were given by linguists, geographers, experienced and elder dwellers, as well as specialists of administrative and governmental organizations, while ordinary people could not give answers of full value.
The questionnaire was conducted online. Consequently, the respondents are people capable of using internet. Age range is from 15 to 50.
Most of the respondents accept toponyms unfamiliar to them or not corresponding to the realia as borrowed items. The respondents show
the Mongol, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Kalmyk, Russian languages as a source of a word loaning process.
From the Kyrgyz language:about Keles river (Southern Kazakhstan region) «This river flows from Kyrgyzstan, perhaps it has a meaning in Kyrgyz language»;
From the Turkish language: Shelek river (Almaty region) «Perhaps this name originates from Turkish ‘Çilek’ meaning ‘cherry’ and means a place where many cherries grow»;
FromtheTurkicandPersianlanguages:Shymkent city (Southern Kazakhstan region) «It is derived from Turkic ‘shym’ and Persian ‘kent’ I suppose»;
From Chinese: Samsy (Almaty region) village «Perhaps it was formed under the Chinese language influence»;
From Russian:Pavlodar (Pavlodar region)
«Pavlu darit’ (to present Pavel)»;Oskemen(Eastern Kazakhstan region) «the mouth of the stone mountains»; Semei (Eastern Kazakhstan region) «seven chambers»; Petropavl (Northern Kazakhstan region) «Petr and Pavel»;
From Kalmak and Mongol languages: Kaskelen city (Almaty region) «I have heard of Kalmak hero named Kasgelen»; Shamalgan village (Almaty region) «I have heard of Kalmak hero named Shamal Khan»etc.
It is clearly seen from these examples that respondents give such kind of answers not because they know foreign languages. In most cases the reason is giving hypothetical answers on the basis of personal conclusion about close relationships with neighboring countries that go deep into the ancient history.
A well known scientist T. Zhanuzak says the following about it: «The structure, composition and origin of Kazakh toponyms are quite varied. It is a normal historical phenomenon that there are many toponyms of ancient times and middle ages, as well as contemporary ones. Some of these toponyms are of Sak, Kanly, Uysun and Gun times, some of them are of Turkic origin, others are of times of Oral Altai language family. Majority of toponyms are Kazakh words, and only few of them are of Arabian, Persian, Mongol and Slavic (Russian, Ukrain, Polish, etc) origin» (Zhanuzak, 2011: 13).
Some respondents tried to analyze their own answers and divide toponyms into morphological parts. For instance, the origin of the Kaspian sea is described as the following: «In old times it was named Gerkam. I think that its contemporary name is derived from the words Kas and Bi».
In defining the origin of geographic names, respondents demonstrated the seme relevant to the toponyms, that is they gave associations with them:
- Defining on the basis of geographic location: Zhaiyk – a river in Oral city; Kaskelen – a city in Almaty region, there is a university named after Suleimen Demirel; Shymbulak– a spring on the peak of the mountain; Mashat– a mountain in the Southern Kazakhstan region; Korgas – Chinese territory, a fortress in old times, a fortress close to the borders, derived from the word ‘to defend’; Petropavl – it was given this name because it is close to Russia; Keles – a river in the ducts of Syrdarya, and etc.
- Defining from a historical perspective: Kazygurt – a place where Noah’s ark stopped and was fixed, the name of the ship was Kazygurt; Abylainkit (Ablaketka) – a place which was considered saint by Mongol Abylai; a place where Abylai died; a place where Abylai Khan’s throne was situated; Ushkonyr – a village where president
N.A. Nazarbayev was born and grew up; Kyzylorda
- an ex-capital of Kazakhstan; Akmola – its former name is Tselinograd, it is named Akmola because of its cold climate and etc.
- Giving numerical information: Kozhakent – a village with a population over 3 thousand; Taraz – a city that changed its name five times; Almaty – a millionaire city, that is a city with a population over a million; and etc.
- Defining names on the basis of associations:
Almaty – an apple, traffic jam; Kyzylorda – rice; Kaspi
- oil, a swan; Zhezkazgan – copper; karagandy – medicine academy; Kapshagai – seaside; Turkestan
- mausoleum of Khozha Akhmed Yasawi; Otyrar
- tomb of Arystan Bab; Shymkent – Shymkent beer, spectacular, beautiful; Medeu – big; Saryarka – wide, green pasture; Shelek – water; Saimasai – to be equal, to be right; and etc.
- Describing toponyms on the basis of their nature and natural resources: Каspi is rich with fish; Karagandy is a centre of black gold, it is named a black land because it is rich with trees and its soil is black and fertile; Shymbulak is a place with a spring a spring rich with grass; Аktobe means a mountain of chrome, asbestos; Аlakol means healing water, salted standing water, perhaps it means dirty water, Alakol’s water is of three colours; Zhezkazganis named because it is rich with brass; Аrkalyk is named because it is rich with hills and mountains; Меdeumeans high and beautiful peak; Таldykorganmeans rich with trees; Betpakdala means wide valley, desert, plain; and etc.
- Giving information irrelevant to the facts: ‘Sagyz’– may be local people like chewing gums; ‘Korgas’ – perhaps lead is produced there; ‘Shelek’
- perhaps there is a factory manufacturing iron; ‘Kostanai’– because the dawn is early and the sunset is late; ‘Samsy’– sounds like ‘samsa’ (a baked product with stuffing).
The results of the research have demonstrated that not only geographic location and political occasions influence on the formation of geographic names, but also beliefs, traditions, even dreams and hopes of local people have a great impact of the formation and further changes of geographic names.
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