Learning to teach with cases

This article reflects onone of the interactive methods of teaching – case-study. The case method is a participatory, discussion-based way of learning where students gain skills in critical thinking, communication, and group dynamics. Not only does this approach raise the likelihood of greater retention—it also allows for learning that goes beyond the transfer of knowledge to include the development of analytical, decision-making, and communication skills, and the cultivation of selfawareness, judgment, and the capacity to lead. 

Cases are narratives, situations, select data samplings, or statements that present unresolved and provocative issues, situations, or questions. A good case study, according to Professor Paul Lawrence is: «the vehicle by which a chunk of reality is brought into the classroom to be worked over by the class and the instructor. A good case keeps the class discussion grounded upon some of the stubborn facts that must be faced in real life situations». The case method is a participatory, discussion-based way of learning where students gain skills in critical thinking, communication, and group dynamics. It is a type of problem-based learning. Often seen in the professional schools of medicine, law, and business, the case method is now used successfully in disciplines such as engineering, chemistry, education, and journalism. Teaching and learning styles are, by their very nature, changing and in recent years there has been a noticeable move from lecture-based activities towards more studentcentered activities. Case studies are an increasingly popular form of teaching and have an important role in developing skills and knowledge in students.

It is now documented that students can learn more effectively when actively involved in the learning process. The case study approach is one way in which such active learning strategies can be implemented in our institutions. There are a number of definitions for the term case study. For example, Fry et al describe case studies as complex examples which give an insight into the context of a problem as well as illustrating the main point. We define our case studies as student centered activities based on topics that demonstrate theoretical concepts in an applied setting. This definition of a case study covers the variety of different teaching structures we use, ranging from short individual case studies to longer group-based activities. Examples of different styles of case studies are given at the end of this guide. There are a number of ways to develop case studies, some more successful than others. The following list covers the main methods and also discusses other options and experiences external to our institution.

1. Developing a case study based on the research interests of For example, the research area of one of our lecturers is polymeric foams; he is now responsible for a sports and materials science case study analyzing running shoe performance including the behavior of the polymeric foams in the soles. We have found this to be a good method of case study development, as it is easier to locate resources for the case study and the lecturer's indepth knowledge and interest in the topic add to the case study.
2. Requesting students to develop case studies based on personal This is a method we have not tried, but is an interesting way to develop case studies and one promoted by Smith. However, problems may arise when trying to involve students.
3. Develop from scratch, maybe following interests/ideas picked up from elsewhere. This approach may involve contacting or visiting other institutions to find out what methods and topics they are
4. Involving external sources can add new dimensions to the learning One of our case studies looks at materials used in tennis equipment and we invite a tennis coach to brief the students on the topic at the start of the case study. This has been well received by the students who felt it added further insights into the topic. Another approach is to use real-life examples from industry such as described by Raju and Sankerfor. Care is needed if an external lecturer is asked to develop the entire case study to ensure they understand what is being requested of them.
5. Developing a case study to replace more traditional teaching on the same The topics covered in this case study were previously taught through lectures. We decided to adapt this part of the module to a team case study approach that is continuously assessed with no examination question.We have found the case-based approach to be a useful method to develop transferable skills. Key skills we have embedded into our case studies include:
6. Group working. The benefits of group working are well documented, and we have found that a team case study approach can add to the learning experience. Care is needed with group working activities e.g. selecting group membership to ensure smooth group operation/training of students in group working skills. This is particularly important for longer case
7. Individual study skills. Case studies are a good vehicle for encouraging students to carry out independent research outside of the lecture/tutorial
8. Information gathering and Many case studies require resource investigation and encourage students to utilize a number of different sources, i.e. Internet, library, laboratory results and contacting experts in industry.
9. Time Longer case studies require students to really consider how best to carry out the work so that it is completed to the set deadline. Interim meetings with academic staff ensure progress is made during the case study rather than all the work being left to the last week.
10. Presentation skills. Most of our case studies require students to present their work in a variety of formats, these include oral presentations, articles, posters and
11. Practical Some of our case studies involve practical work on the components that are being studied. Feedback has shown that many students enjoy the hands-on approach.

It is all very well to promote case studies as a good form of teaching, but how do you evaluate whether they are meeting the objectives set for them in terms of increasing student enjoyment/motivation, content coverage and depth of learning? Evaluating students' learning can be problematic but essential to ensure good teaching. Some suggestions for evaluation are as follows:

Questionnaire (closed questions): These ask for a specific answer ─ a circle round an option, items to be ranked. There are many standard university versions of this type of questionnaire. This approach can be costeffective for processing the data and interpreting the results. However, they limit the responses from the students to predetermined answers.

Questionnaire (open-ended questions): These allow students to fully explain their views and justify their answers. However, it can take time to analyze and interpret the results. We tend to use this approach, particularly with the introduction of new case studies, as we feel the questions evoke more personal and informative answers from students.

Interviews and discussion: Tutorials and student liaison committees offer a good opportunity to discuss the learning experience with students. If assessing a specific case study, it is often better to use a member of staff who is not directly involved in the case study so that students do not worry that negative feedback may affect their assessment.

Feedback from both student and lecturers has highlighted areas for improvement in our case study teaching. Some of these will equally apply to other forms of teaching, for example problem-based learning, small group tutorials, project work.

Group working. The subject of group working comes up time and time again in student feedback. We originally provided no formal training for group work and soon recognized that this was an area we needed to address.

Depth of learning. When examining student use of resources, we found that many of the research-based case studies led students to derive all their information from the Internet. Whilst this is a valuable resource we feel that it can often result in only surface learning. We have found that one way of addressing this is to specify to students that we are expecting critical analysis in their work. Including a practical component is also a useful way of achieving more in-depth study. Ensuring that there is progression of learning skills development when using a series of case studies is important, rather than repetition of the same skills. The basic requirements for a successful case teaching experience are:

1. an appropriate case
2. students who are prepared to engage with the material in a discussion
3. an instructor who knows the case, has a plan for the discussion, and ready to deal with the unexpected situations.

To be most effective, use of the case method should be embedded in the course syllabus, so that learning to learn in this way is one of the objectives of the course, and students have ample opportunity to practice their skills as case discussants. Going through the following steps, in order, will help you achieve that goal.

In a case discussion, students «do» the work of the discipline, rather than watch or read about how it is done by others. By engaging in the case, students apply the concepts, techniques and methods of the discipline and improve their ability to apply them. Case discussions bring energy and excitement to the classroom, providing students with an opportunity to work with the range of evidence, and improving their ability to apply the vocabulary, theory and methods they have learned in the course. Introducing the case method, like any change in pedagogical practice, represents an investment of faculty time and energy. Advantages of incorporating the case method in a fully lecture-based course are best understood as part of the bigger case for active learning techniques in general.

The case method gives students the ability to quickly make sense of a complex problem, rapidly arrive at a reasonable solution, and communicate that solution to others in a succinct and effective manner. In the course of doing this, the case method also accomplishes a number of other things, each of which is valuable in its own right. By exciting the interest of students, the case method fosters interest in professional matters. By placing such things in a lively context, the case method facilitates the learning of facts, nomenclature, conventions, techniques, and procedures. By providing both a forum for discussion and concrete topics to discuss, the case method encourages professional dialogue. By providing challenging practice in the art of decision-making, the case method refines professional judgement. By asking difficult questions, the case method empowers students to reflect upon the peculiar demands of their position. The case method is a form of instructor-guided, discussionbased learning. It introduces complex and often ambiguous real-world scenarios into the classroom, typically through a case study with a protagonist facing an important decision. The case method represents a shift from the traditional, instructor-centered model of education to a participant-centered one in which students play a lead role in their own and each other's learning. Case method instructors use questions, dialogue, debate, and the application of analytical tools and frameworks to engage students in a challenging, interactive learning environment. Not only does this approach raise the likelihood of greater retention—it also allows for learning that goes beyond the transfer of knowledge to include the development of analytical, decision-making, and communication skills, and the cultivation of self-awareness, judgment, and the capacity to lead. At its best, the case method enables students to develop what Harvard Business School Professor Tom Piper calls "the courage to act under uncertainty."

The role of the case method instructor is captured by the Latin verb "educare"-to lead out. A good discussion leader does not seek to cover material in the classroom, but instead to guide students toward the discovery of critical insights and uncovering of broader lessons through thoughtful questioning, listening, and responding. The case method instructor must be well-prepared for both the content associated with each class session and the process for guiding the participant-centered learning experience. Students act as co-creators of the learning process in the case method. They are responsible for preparing the case in advance, first individually, and then often in small study groups. During the class session, students are expected to participate as contributors and as listeners to help advance their own learning and that of their classmates. Ideally, learning should continue after class as students reflect on the discussion and apply insights and lessons in the broader context of their academic, professional, and personal lives. The extensive preparation carried out by case method instructors prior to a class session culminates in the real-time discussion of the case. Implementing the teaching plan involves challenges and opportunities along two dimensions. On the one hand, the class flow provides a temporal dimension to execution as the instructor moves through time from pre-class arrival, to the opening, through sequences of questioning, listening, and responding, to transitions and, ultimately, to the closing of the class. At the same time, there are discussion management issues that cut across the entire class session, including the management of time, student participation and engagement, and the use of boards.. A case discussion class is not merely an intellectual exercise, but also an emotional and interpersonal experience that requires trust and collaboration. To develop and reinforce an effective case learning environment, instructors should arrive early to the classroom before every session, at least ten minutes prior to the scheduled start of class. This practice helps support the instructor's transition from planning to execution, enhances the instructor's relationship with students, and provides time to prepare the physical environment of the classroom. An early arrival allows the instructor to move psychologically and emotionally from the self-focused nature of the teaching plan ("this is what I am going to do") and concerns about teaching performance ("how well am I going to do?"), to become immersed in, and connected to, the collective energy of the class.The additional time also strengthens the relationship with students. It sends a powerful signal that the instructor truly cares for the students as individuals, not anonymous members of the class. Talking informally with participants, instructors get to know them better and have the opportunity to sense where they are in their hearts and minds on that particular day.

From a practical perspective, early arrival makes it possible to attend to the physical environment of the classroom. Pre-class preparation may involve organizing notes and papers for easy reference, setting up videos or other resources, checking classroom equipment, and perhaps pre-setting one or more boards with information the instructor would prefer to record in advance. By allowing ample time for these activities, the instructor can avoid delaying the start of class or interrupting the flow of the session to attend to logistical distractions.

Experienced case instructors evaluate class participation based on a student's contribution to the collective learning during class discussions. Establishing objective assessments of these contributions can be challenging. The quality of individual contributions relates not only to the content, but also the delivery and timing of comments within the flow of the class discussion. More frequent participation is often a positive factor, although excessive attempts to comment may lead to lower quality contributions and may reflect a bias toward speaking over listening. In assessing participation, instructors should be aware of the critical role they play in shaping student performance through calling patterns and the types of questions and follow-ups they use with individual students. Also, the quality of the instructor's participation tracking system may significantly affect the reliability of the overall performance evaluation.

From a student perspective, the participant-centered nature of the case method generates greater expectations and opportunities for feedback as compared to lecture-based pedagogies. As students participate in class discussions, they receive immediate feedback in the form of instructor and student responses to their contributions. This type of feedback, however, may be ambiguous and indirect, leaving students uncertain as to the impact of their participation and how they might enhance their effectiveness. To some extent, this is not a bad thing, since it encourages students to develop their own capabilities for reflection and self-assessment. Students may actively seek additional feedback from peers and the instructor outside of class. Ideally, instructors will be able to provide both evaluative and developmental feedback in a manner that helps students discover further insights regarding their strengths and opportunities for improvement.The most relevant indicators of success as a case method teacher may only be available several years after the course has ended, as students apply what they have learned in the classroom in their professional lives. In the meantime, instructors can continue to develop their teaching effectiveness through openness to feedback, and learning by doing in an on-going process of experimentation.

1. Boehrer, John and Marty Linsky, «Teaching with Cases: Learning to Question» in M.D. Svinicki (ed.), The Changing Face of College Teaching, New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 42 (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1990), p. 42.
2. Buckles, Stephen. Using cases as an effective active learning technique, in Teaching Economics to Undergraduates: Alternatives to Chalk and Talk, (M. Watts and W. Becker, eds.), Edward Elgar Publishing, paperback edition, p. 225.
3. Carlson, John and David W. Schodt, «Beyond the Lecture: Case Teaching and the Learning of Economic Theory», Journal of Economic Education, (Winter 1995), p. 17.
4. Carlson, John and Ann Velenchik. 2006. Using the Case Method in the Economics Classroom, in Teaching Economics: More Alternatives to Chalk and Talk(W. Becker, M. Watts and S. Becker), Edward Elgar Publishing, paperback edition, p.59.
5. Case Research Journal, North American Case Research Association, http://nacra.net/crj/index.php5
6. Christensen, Roland, David A. Garvin, and Ann Sweet, Education for Judgment: The Artistry of Discussion Leadership, Boston: Harvard Business School, 1991. p. 78.