In article are considered century was characterized by new trends that allow us to see well-known phenomena in a different light and to explain the interest in learning the «language in action», that brings to the fore the problem of language functioning in society, various aspects of the use of language as a tool for human communication, learning the ways of reflection language changes in public opinion, in society, changing cultural and social values — in other words, the problem of the actual use of language in a social context. In this regard, the study of euphemisms when learning a foreign language is of considerable research interest because they are thin, sensitive indicators of cultural and linguistic traditions of social preferences of native speakers, fix and replace traditional methods of registering the most minor, short-term changes, reflecting the characteristics of public evaluation of the phenomena of reality.
The study of euphemisms in the Polish language allows contributing to the study of national identity and language picture of Poland and verbal behavior of Polish language speakers, as well as due to the increased interest in the phenomenon euphemism speech among youth society.
The term «euphemism» was used by ancient authors. Its genesis is well known: the term comes from the Greek words «good» «rumor» («speech»). Initially, it was interpreted as a recitation of «words having a good omen, refraining from words having a bad omen (especially in the sacrifice), a reverent silence» [1]. Such an understanding of euphemism brings it to taboos, but do not make them equal.
Taboo (from the Polynesian tapu — entirely dedicated, specially marked) is prohibition to perform certain actions (to use those or other items, food, drink) or a banning to pronounce certain words, expressions (most often — proper names) [2].
Euphemism is a replacement of taboo words (in modern culture — and also sharp or violating propriety of expression) by acceptable ones.
The problem of euphemisms was widely developed in Europe and America throughout the XX century. In Russian language studies and wider — in Slavic — this issue was raised only in the last decade of the XX century.
Euphemism (gr. Euphemfa — refraining from inappropriate words). A book a word or expression, is used instead of another, which, for whatever reasons, is inconvenient or undesirable to say (because of it is taboo, traditional or in non-use because of rudeness, incivility [3].
A.A.Reformatsky defined euphemisms as «replaced permitted words which are used instead of taboo» [4]. But most of all by euphemism one can set what word it replaces. In addition, the euphemisms are used by us to elevate the status and value of any phenomenon. More specific goal is to use euphemisms such as camouflage information. The point of using euphemisms in this case is to conceal the true nature referred to.
Over time, the word that was a euphemism, can stop to be it and become the very name of the phenomenon or wordeuphemism can admit insufficiently correct and it should be replaced by another.
In the linguistic literature there are different formulations of the concept of «euphemism». In most of them as the main feature of euphemism is considered its ability to replace, «disguise» unpleasant or unwanted words or phrases.
Researcher D.N.Shmelev characterizes an euphemism as «refraining from inappropriate words, relaxed expression, serving under certain conditions for the replacement of such signs, which seem undesirable speaking, not very polite, too harsh» [5].
In the dictionary of foreign words we find a definition — a euphemism is a softer word or phrase instead of a coarse or indecent, «do not tell stories» instead of «do not lie» [6].
One of the latest signs of euphemism we find at a researcher L.P.Rat defining an euphemism as «indirect way, periphrastic and thus mitigating the notation object properties or actions...» [7].
Thus, an euphemism is a replacement of any unauthorized or unwanted word or expression to more correct to avoid a direct name of all that can cause negative feelings, like a speaker and interlocutor, as well as to mask certain facts of reality.
According to the classification of euphemisms, there are different views. However, all they offer a common cause euphemismation of speech — the desire to avoid conflict communication.
According to B.A.Larina in its base should be «the social nature of euphemisms.» He identifies three types euphemisms [8]:
- commonly used euphemisms of national language;
- class and professional euphemisms;
- everyday family
A.S.Kurkiyev identifies five groups of euphemisms, classifying them by generating reasons: 1) arising on the basis of superstition (sick — not well, is ill); 2) arising out of a sense of fear and pain (kill — profits, kill); 3) arising on the basis of sympathy and pity (the patient — not all at home); 4) generated by modesty (illegitimate — bastard, skolotysh); 5) generated by the politeness (old — in years, old age).
L.P.Krysin, in turn, believes that there are two spheres of euphemisms — personal life and social life. [7] In language there are words, which are inverse euphemism — dysphemisms.
Dysphemism (Gr. Δυσφήμη — «bad speaking») — is crude or indecent designation of initially neutral concepts to give it a negative semantic load [9].
Dysphemisms are the mirror image of euphemisms. As euphemisms dysphemism serve for secret speaking [9], encoding of information. With euphemisms, dysphemisms hide the real meaning of the word by changing its emotional color, but unlike euphemisms dysphemism reorienting word on a rough estimate of what is happening.
In connection with the social changes in the society any concept can move from the category of neutral or euphemistic expressions in the category dysphemism and vice versa
Using in speech a large number of dysphemism leads to high levels of aggression in people's behavior, stiffness in the evaluation of the interlocutor, extremely negative expressivity in the discussion of that the speaker does not agree with.
The use in speech euphemisms and dysphemism is called respectively euphemismation and dispheumismation of speech.
In today's speech two opposing trends are clearly seen: a coarsening of speech (dispheumismation) and at the same time its euphemismation.
The use of euphemistic words and expressions depends on the context and the conditions of speech: the tougher social control speech situation and self speaking their own language, the more likely an appearance in her euphemisms. L.P.Krysin believes that the main purpose of euphemismation is the desire to avoid conflict and communication failures, not to create the interlocutor communicative feeling of discomfort [7].
Most often, the definition of euphemisms in speech — is not easy. But, after analyzing a number of sources, both foreign and Russian researchers, we found that there are several standard types of word formation techniques that are most often form euphemistical expressions:
- Word-qualifiers with «diffuse»
Without consulting with us, he (the president) supports a government that by their actions brought the country to the known results (bad, negative).
- Abstract concepts or words with enough common sense, indirect notation used for very specific naming of objects and
In Polish there is an expression «płakać jak bóbr» (crying like a beaver) — that is, «to cry, cry in three streams» [10].
- Foreign words and terms of foreign language vocabulary, in general, almost always appear as a euphemisms, since foreign words seem less shocking and more
Foreign words are used to camouflage some terrible concepts: likwidacja (liquidation), eliminacja (destruction) and etc. In general, foreign language vocabulary is more often its «own», than appears as a euphemism, «as foreign words seem less shocking and more noble» [11].
An example is borrowed interlingual abbreviations in English as a euphemistic designations of toilet in many European languages, including Russian and Polish, WC (water closet> WC). Moreover, in the Polish language this euphemism is used in two ways:
- WC;
- dabliu si, is transmitted to the sound of the English letters
- Litotes -minimizing properties of
- Nietrudnosię domyśleć (you might guess) instead łatwo się domyślić (you can guess), Nieźle (nothing) instead dobrze, doskonale (good, excellent) [12].
- Replacement with new or synonymous
Puszysta (full) instead gruba (thick), towar (goods) — narkotyki (drugs) — appeared in the speech as euphemisms — emotionally neutral words or expressions used in place of synonymous words or expressions that appear speaker obscene, rude or tactless
We have identified several thematic groups of euphemisms:
Supernatural forces: euphemisms associated with superstition. Based on the fact that words can bring bad luck, as well as on the fact that if we talk about some phenomenon, it can happen.
Religious euphemisms: not to use God's name in vain and hell, they are replaced by various other expressions.
Not to pronounce the name of God:
Jak babcię kocham (like I love my grandma). Jak Bozię kocham — «Bozia» — is a diminutive of
«Bóg» (God). Jak bum cyk-cyk, not to speak — Jak Boga kocham (God's love) [13].
Not to pronounce the name of the Mother of God:
O matko-oh! (mother). Instead of «O Matko Boska!» (Our Lady). Not to pronounce the name of the devil:
Do diaska!; Do licha! (licho — is bad, evil spirit) — (the devil).
There are Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech expression, where the name of the devil is not mentioned, for example, the turnover of «not in himself.»
Originally himself «nesvoynoe» human condition was characterized either by sickness or being drunk: Czuć się nieswojo (sick — and not in himself), (I do not own). State of illness or intoxication were associated with evil spirits. No accident in the old days in Poland saw pół człowiek (Half Men), nie ma połowy mnie (I do not have sex) sick person. In those dialects have euphemism for evil spirits (diabeł) — druga połowa (the other half), druga (second), nieswój (not his), nie nasz (not ours), nie w swoim duchu (not its spirit), ichni (ihov) — all euphemisms of diabeł (hell).
Expression nie swój (not your own) meant that people already half belongs to some bad and, depending on the future relations with him, remain healthy or die. For example, the Polish proverb «Już sam nie swój, polowica dijablowa» means. «He was not himself, half — of the devil» [11].
Professional euphemisms are used by representatives of any profession, or to refer to any professional movements: retirement, dismissal, and so on.
Some types of professions, euphemistic designation of which has the task to raise the prestige of these professions or hide the negative sensation from denoted by «direct» the name of occupation: the operator at the slaughterhouse, the operator of the treatment works (formerly flusher, cease to carry out its function euphemistically), the controller instead of the warden. A substantial role in this group is played by euphemisms of foreign language notation.
Gospodarz domu (landlord) or dozorca (overseer) definition of janitor profession, dziewczyna (girl) — the young unskilled worker, pomoc domowa (home care) — not to speak służąca «servant.»
The word «restrukturyzacja» (restructuring, changes in the company) — means the dismissal. Social euphemisms: are used to refer to the adverse social effects.
Unique functions perform euphemisms in social jargon. Apparently, the main one is concealment, veiling the essence of the concept referred to [14], sometimes with elements of verbal jokes, games, puns. For example barachło (barahalka), czaj / czajura (chefir). Bransoletki (bracelets) — kajdanki (handcuffs); siedzieć (sit) — być w areszcie (kept under arrest).
Dmuchnąć (blow), gwizdnąć (droop), zwinąć (roll); rąbnąć (rubnut), podprowadzić (podprovesti), sprzątnąć (away from cleaning) — obrabować (steal).
Diler (messenger) — handlarz narkotykami (drug dealer). Szprycować się (colic) — podawać narkotyki za pomocą strzykawki (drugs administered by syringe); trawa (grass) — narkotyki (drugs for smoking).
For a long time the vodka trade in public statements and acts of Poland fixed under the euphemism of «wine». Vodka -in Polish «little water», «Vodicka.»
Euphemisms of bribes: korupcja, gratyfikacja, honorarium (a foreign-word), dać w łapę (give a paw), posmarować (grease), mieć kogoś w kieszeni (have someone in your pocket), zatkać komuś gębę (plug someone's face), brać (take), wziątek, wziątka (bribe).
Social and political euphemisms are used to designate the authorities and their activities, to refer to military operations and their participants.
For example, Russia and Poland under Alexander II: from the administrative division of the Russian Empire disappeared name «Kingdom of Poland» and indeed «Poland», the euphemism «Privislensky region» was used [15].
«Endecki ciemnogród» — literally, «Grim People's Democratic City» — an euphemism for all «totalitarian», «anti-democratic», «dark», that is, among the Polish people.
During the Second World War there was a euphemism: całościowo osądzeni (totally condemned) — Nazi euphemism zniszczenie (destruction).
Zwrot (return) — it was pure euphemism for the word of the shooting (rozstrzelanie), when the terror began by entering on Polish lands by NKVD
According to the Polish researcher Y.Monkosha-Boshdan in Poland during the election campaign in September 1993, there «was compiled lists of words that generally should not be used or should be replaced by the word-substitutes (these were confidential recommendations, instructions for members of one party). For example: gospodarka na realnych podstawach (economy on a real basis), this is kapitalizm (capitalism) should not talk about wealth, and if it becomes necessary, it should be replaced by acquired condition; word of the capital people are shocked, pushes, better to replace — money funds necessary for the accumulation of more money [16].
«Environment» is a euphemism for Jaroslaw Kaczynski, the twin of President Lech Kaczynski, after his death at Smolensk.
Ekstremista (extremist), promocja instead of propaganda (propoganda), which is badly associated, pewne, określone koła (certain groups) — some groups of enemies. Especially obscure phrases are euphemisims: ze względu na stan zdrowia (from the state of health) — when someone is retiring and the real reasons remain unclear, białe plamy (white spots) — on unclear or awkward moments in history, akcja obronna (protective action), akcja pokojowa (peaceful action) — euphemisms of war, internowaniprisoners as political prisoners.
The relationship between the various national and social groups: the word «Jew» is replaced and is used by all peoples of the Polish word «Jew.» The activities of the army, intelligence, police and other authorities, whose actions should not be «in sight.» According to police — «cop» is in Russian «cop» — police officer warden, police constable, a guard or police officer. «A number of researchers believe that the word has penetrated into the Russian language from the Polish criminal slang, which meant a prison guard «mente». Konflikt (conflict) is used instead of wojna (war). Niebiescy (blue, the color of the uniform) glina (clay) — the police. In a socialist, the word «strajk» replaced «przerwy w pracy» (outage). Sprawny inaczej (spravno otherwise) — invalid (invalid). The definition of old age: jesień życia (autumn of life), być w latach (be in years) — when a man for many years. Determination of Death: kopnąć w kalendarz (kick in the calendar), wyciągnąć kopyta (stretch the hoof), pójść do piachu (go in the sand), kwiatuszki od spodu (sniff the flowers from the bottom) [13].
Physiological euphemisms are used to describe physiological processes and conditions, or the names of some body parts, direct designation is perceived as not quite decent.
Let us consider euphemisms of delicate sphere, the so-called «toilet issues» [13], which is subject to strict taboo. In this case, not traditionally considered as verbalized words the names of certain physiological functions of the body, the waste products of a man and appellations, vessels associated with the implementation of these items.
Euphemisms of toilet theme contrasted primarily as euphemisms conversational, colloquial (among whish in small amounts there are slang words), on the one hand, and, on the other hand, book, functioning in oral official speech, occupational, different functional varieties of writing.
Euphemistically refer to defecate: Russian call of nature; repay nature; Polish oddać hołd naturze (pay homage prirode) wygódka (desired small room), iść za potrzebą (go for the needs), the motif necessary requirements the use of nature underlies the euphemistic name of toilets: in Russian privy need a closet.
A common feature of modern metaphors of two languages — depersonification (people, its properties are compared with the operation of the machine, mechanism). For example, the Russian nut zaslabla, Polish parcie na wentyl (pressure valve) instead of the word of diarrhea.
The use of names instead of a direct relationship notation of toilet: ciotka (aunt) is in Polish. In Russian portable language kinship names used in the composition of phrases such as zadzwonić do babci (to call my grandmother), załatwić się (settle, served basis), iść tam gdzie król chodzi piechotą (go where the king goes on foot) instead iść do toalety (go to the toilet)
General admission of euphemisms microgroups forming names of toilet, lavatory for Russian and Polish languages is the use of ergonemy e.g.: White House, the Palace of Congresses — in Russian; sejm (Diet — the name of the Parliament in Poland) — in Polish.
It is interesting to note that in the modern Polish language there is no official euphemism for the male and female toilets. For this purpose, «visual euphemisms» are commonly used: graphic images and geometric shapes, e.g., A triangle (instead of the men's room) and a circle (instead of a female toilet).
«Peacock» (paw) in the Polish language — not only exotic bird, but a euphemism for no less picturesque than the peacock's tail, spews into the daylight of stomach contents: puścić pawia (let Peacock) — burp.
Sexual euphemisms are used to describe the relationship between the sexes: bufory, uszy (buffer, timpani), instead piersi (nipples). Ferment cucumber (zakisić ogóra), fly (przelecieć), instead stosunek płciowy (sexual intercourse). dom z rybą w środku (house with fish inside), być przy nadziei (with the hope to be), być w błogosławionym stanie (be blessed state) instead zaciążyć (get pregnant in the youth slang) — to become pregnant.
It turns out that when speaking in Russian with the Poles one should beware of using words-parasites, because the «type» — this is a gross name of the penis, while the Poles still not recommended and the word Z piczki (match). Similar reasons. W stroju Adama (dressed as Adam) — naked. In Polish porty it and Ports (pants) and euphemism meaning «ass» [9]. Stanik: comes from the Polish language (stanik — bodice), is a euphemism for the word «bra», «bra».
In Poland, instead of the «pancake» say «choinka» (which means «tree»). This is a euphemism as Russian «pancake» Polish «choinka» comes from the «cholera» [13].
The phrase w razie Niemca (in the case of German), means roughly, if you happen something unexpected (zdarzy się coś nieprzewidzianego).
Gadać do lampy (to say nothing) (euphemism) — clearly echoing ours (for me it is to the bulb). Małe Piwo (small beer) is something easy to carry.
Bułka z masłem (bread and butter), something easy to carry.
Biedny jak mysz kościelna (poor as a church mouse) you say it when someone is poor [14].
Summing up the consideration of euphemisms in our article, we note that in the domestic and foreign science of language dominates a broad understanding euphemismation.
As a result of the study, we have identified several thematic groups: religious sphere euphemisms, professional social sphere euphemisms, socio-political sphere euphemisms, domestic sphere euphemisms.
Traced the dependence of the intended use of euphemisms from the scope of use. For example, in contrast to the economic, political and military euphemisms that are used to manipulate the audience, euphemistic expression of the social sphere are used to mitigate the offensive and unpleasant.
We have identified the main ways of formation of euphemisms in the Polish language, found that there are several standard types of word-formation methods that are most often euphemistically form of expression: abstract concepts, foreign language vocabulary, abbreviations, litotes, replacement or new synonymous words.
It would be interesting to consider the same classes in a narrower sense, highlighting in each subgroup, the context interpretation. For example, euphemistic speed, used to refer to national and social groups and the relationships between them, includes such subgroups as euphemisms describing race, gender labeling, physical and mental disabilities, occupational prestige, social position.
The study of phraseological euphemisms in the process of learning a foreign language helps us to see the well-known phenomenon euphemy in a new light, to explain, clarify and supplement the existing ideas about the linguistic phenomenon. What are the distinctive features of phraseology allow them to operate successfully as euphemistically renamed? This is a joint sign functioning component of euphemisms of timeseparated lexical components, carrying out a holistic focus on the reality of cultural characteristics denoted by phraseologism, manifested in culturally significant components of a «domestic» character, or a component having a «social» loading Figurative metaphor underlying phraseologism allows to draw an analogy with a variety of objects and phenomena cultural reality phraseologism function is to stimulate cultural knowledge, character, associations, various plant culture, all that owns a native speaker; because the main function of euphemism — cultural, it is functionally brings these two linguistic signs, enables them to function together.
So we cannot deny the importance of learning these euphemisms as they give us a bright picture, image of a real functioning language, they open the world of inner cultural phenomena. An integral part of learning a foreign language, are turns of euphemisms, which, in turn, contribute to the development of motivation to study the subject. They carry information about the culture, lifestyle, as well as the traditions of native speakers.
With the help of euphemisms teacher can encourage students to debate, built on the value of a particular euphemistic expression. Thus, the language units enter into the memory of students and make their speech more multifaceted. In addition, developing the cultural component of learning a foreign language, because most of euphemistic units have analogues in native language and transmit the colors of the target language. Fluent foreign language speaking is inconceivable without imaginative stylistic examples and tools — metaphors, epithets, and, of course, euphemisms. Studying and comparing euphemisms of two languages make a distinction and culture, the mentality of these people, sometimes even differences in the thinking of speakers of a language, which is also very interesting. Finally, there may be some historical parallels characteristic of the two countries.
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