The concepts of diaspora

Abstract

Diaspora has always existed, but it is now against the background of globalization the world interest in them as a socio-political and ethno-cultural phenomenon is extremely increased. In the context of economic and political globalization, migration processes have begun to play a significant role in the formation of the modern system of international relations. In this connection, the growing role and influence of the Diaspora is becoming an extremely important phenomenon in the international arena. Today Diaspora groups and individuals are being recognized as major actors who can play a significant role in domestic and international politics. In this context, the article provides a brief introduction about diasporas and goes on to analyze the concept of diaspora. 

The term of diaspora dates back to the period around 250 BC, the Jews of Alexandria adopted the term which signifies “their own scattering away from the homeland” [1, p.1]. Its meaning has been stretched in different directions. The term applied principally to Jews and less commonly to Greeks, Armenians and Africans and now has been applied to other religious and ethnic groups. Ethnic groups that declare that they are a diaspora have increased.

In his book “Global diasporas” Robin Cohan states that diaspora studies have gone through four phases. According to him, first phase is from the 1960s and 1970s, the classical meaning, a description of the dispersion of Africans, Armenians and the Irish. The second phase is in the 1980s and diaspora was described as different categories of people – ‘expatriates, expellees, political refugees, alien residents, immigrants and ethnic and racial minorities tout court’. Mid-1990s was the third phase which was marked by social constructionist critiques of ‘second phase’ the current phase is considered as the fourth phase [2 p1.]. Diasporas are widespread ethnic groups across different countries. They have influenced international politics since ancient times and they continue to do so today. People have moved from their home countries for centuries, for many reasons. Moreover, diaspora is one of the little studied actors in the political life of various countries. But now against the background of globalization the world interest in diasporas as a socio-political and ethno-cultural phenomenon is extremely increased. In the context of economic and political globalization, migration processes have begun to play a significant role in the formation of the modern system of international relations. In this connection, the growing role and influence of the Diaspora is becoming an extremely important phenomenon in the international arena. Understanding this fact is necessary in general to all countries, but especially those who today tend to occupy a leading place in the modern world politics and should be seen as a tool for promoting national interests in improving the country’s foreign policy image.

All above prove that diasporas are drawn to a new place either positive factors or negative factors. There is no country in the world which doesn’t have any emigrants. They have moved because of poverty, hunger, persecution, discrimination, civil war, unemployment.

Recently migrant numbers have risen rapidly in the last decade simply for education and better jobs. Today Diaspora groups and individuals are being recognized as major actors who can use their influence and financial resources to contribute to local development in their homelands. They have a unique role in international relations because they find themselves in between two countries, sharing in two cultures, having an emotional investment in two nations, and preserving social connections in two societies.

As mobilized groups with a strong sense of identity, diasporas can play a role both in domestic and in international politics. As far as domestic politics is concerned, they may influence both the domestic politics of their homelands and the domestic politics of their host states regarding issues that are of interest to them.

According to Robin Cohen common features of diaspora  can be characterized as :

1. Dispersal from an original homeland;
2. The expansion from a homeland in search of work;
3. A collective memory and myth about the homeland, including its location, history, suffering and achievements;
4. Imagined ancestral home and a collective commitment to its maintenance, restoration, safety and prosperity, even to its creation;
5. The frequent development of a return movement to the homeland;
6. A strong ethnic group consciousness (the transmission of a common cultural and religious heritage and the belief in a common fate);
7. A troubled relationship with host societies;
8. A sense of empathy and co-responsibility with co-ethnic members in other countries
9. Enriching life in host countries with a tolerance for pluralism [3, 17].

While there is a slight difference in William Safran’s list of criteria for diaspora groups where the author emphasizes the following features:

1. Dispersal from an “original ‘centre’ to two or more foreign regions
2. Retention of “collective memory “of the homeland
3. Partial or full exclusion or marginalization from hostland society
4. Desire to return homeland
5. Maintenance of homeland
6. Collective consciousness [4, 83].

There have been distinguished different kinds of diaspora by different scholars, based on its causes peculiar to each country.

Robin Cohen suggests ideal types of diaspora. For example, Jews, Africans, Armenians (Irish and Palestinians)are considered to be victims. Indentured Indians are as labours (‘proletarian diaspora’). British are as imperial. Lebanese, Chinese as trade and Caribbean peoples, Sindhis, Parsis and other religious diasporas are deterritorialized [5, p.18].

According to Mendikulova G.M. before considering the concept of “diaspora”, three kinds of relations should be defined: a) ethnic groups in their various linguistic, religious, historical forms; b) homeland, i.e., the geographical area to which ethnic groups have affection; c) host country, i.e., the country where the diaspora currently resides. Historically, three important diasporas are known among which them Indian, Chinese and Jewish characterized by the compact living of large ethnic groups far from the region of origin for several centuries. Moreover the author states that in the modern period of political science particular interest was paid to the studies of the problem of the impact of diasporas on international relations as an object of domestic policy and a subject of international relations connecting thread between the domestic and foreign policy of the state. The Diaspora, being one of the six categories of ethnic politics (irredento or non-reunified nations, diaspora, ethics as a strategic source, nations without their own state, transnational ethnic economic communities of internalization of minority rights) was an integral part of ethnic pluralism that affects interstate and interethnic relations and has the opposite effect of international problems on internal ethnic conflicts [6, p.].

In his book “ Diaspora Politics” Gabriel Sheffer disusses the political and cultural group formation within diaspora group who have recognized notion of homeland-and a “stateless” diaspora sharing two cultures, persevering social connections, play a significant role in domestic and international politics and have the power to influence both to national foreign decisions. Moreover Sheffer describes six broad strategies of integrationassimilationist, integrationist, communalist, autonomist, irredentist and separatist within the host country which  influence  according to their socio-economic and political mandates [7, p.8].

Diasporas are building political and cultural bridges between two counties, contributing to enhance the quality of life and introduce best international practice. Diasporas are often in agreement with the policies of their country of origin regarding foreign policy issues facing the homeland and they mobilize in support of such policies. There are many examples of such  cooperation between diaspora and country of origin.

For example, Kotabe M. et al. (2013) examine cross-border movements of financial capital through foreign direct investment and the transnational flows of people and the different types of capital that they possess. The authors identify the role of Diasporas and how they invest in their home countries through direct and portfolio investments or through the establishment of new ventures in their homelands. Moreover Diaspora capital is a useful development resource for migration-sending countries, many of which are among the most capital needy in the world. And Diasporas build networks which overcome various challenges such as language and foreignness that result in positive economic effects in the homeland. The authors state that diasporans play influential roles in the foreign-market entry decision-making process, often encouraging their employers to at least investigate the possibility of investing in the diasporan’s country of origin and generates new jobs and increased income [8].

Brah defines the consept of diaspora “ an interpretive frame referencing the economic, political, and cultural dimentions of these contemporary forms of migrancy [migrant, immigrant, expatriate, refugee, guest worker, exile]” [9] Furthermore the author relates diaspora to the notion of “home”.

The fact that Diasporas can create enormous benefits for their home countries has become apparent in recent years. Diaspora communities have been mobilizing their financial, human and social capital to set up and implement development projects that are directed at their communities of origin.

When we talk about Diasporas we talk about different nationalities, which mean different cultures, and different homelands. It is clear that immigration can be beneficial for migrants, it can also be economically beneficial for both countries of origin and host countries, and however, with present economic and trading structures it is the rich and powerful countries that benefit most.

On the other hand, migration is a very old phenomenon and strongly related to conflict, underdevelopment and environmental dangers. Despite several international achievements regarding international security and development the number of migrants has rather increased than decreased over the last couple of decades.

Western political science proposes a division of the theory of migration into three groups: classical, conflictual, systemic. They are determined by the nature of the decision to leave the migrant: a) real, by comparing income and expenditure (classical theories); B) forced, under economic and political pressure (conflict); C) multi-causal with relative stress (systemic).

There are, of course, many critical arguments about a definitive diaspora model, in this sense; it is useful to establish models of diaspora and to consider alternative diaspora groups. On the other hand, as a term do different things in different historical contexts. Diaspora is one of the important and understudied actors in present economic, political and cultural relations and occupies its own niche in the political life of various countries.

Conclusion

Diasporas widely recognized in international activities that aim at the promotion  of international  peace and development operates globally and locally. The growing role and influence of the diaspora is becoming an extremely important phenomenon in the international arena. It should be noted that researchers estimate that the migration processes in the world have a tendency to a permanent increase; more and more people are involved in them. Diaspora can contribute to the realization of the state’s foreign policy objectives of its outcome. Understanding this fact is necessary in general to all countries, but especially those who today tend to occupy a leading place in the modern world politics and should be seen as a tool for promoting national interests in improving the country’s foreign policy image.

Diasporas maintain a sufficient level of elements of national identity which oppose the challenges of assimilation nature, always present in varying degrees of intensity and in the framework of a different nationality of the state of the environment. Diasporas may influence the foreign policies of their host countries. This is especially true of diasporas integrated into democratic societies, where they often organize as interest groups that influence the foreign policy of their host government. Diaspora often creates a system of networking; the historic homeland is becoming one of the links in the international chain creating a network of economic, political and other ties is a common international practice.

References:

1. Khachig Tölölyan. 2007. The Contemporary Discourse of Diaspora Studies. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East27 (3), 647-655
2. Cohen R. Global Diasporas. An introduction. Second Edition. 2008, 2-3
3. Cohen R. Global Diasporas. An introduction. Second Edition. 2008. 17-18
4. William Safran. 1991. Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return. Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 1(1): 83-89
5. Cohen R. Global Diasporas. An introduction. Second Edition. 2008. 17-18
6. Mendikulova G.M. Istoricheskyie sudbi kazakhskoi diaspory. Proyshozhdenyie I razvityie. Аlmaty: Gylym, 1997, 264 с.
7. Sheffer, Diaspora Politics: At Home Abroad. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2006. 8-9
8. Kotabe et al. Diaspora Investment and Entrepreneurship: The Role of People, Their Movements, and Capital in the International Economy, International Management 19, 3-5. 2013
9. Brah 1996. Cartographies of diaspora: contesting identities. London: Routledge