In the article the authors consider the problem of gender stereotypes and theoretically substantiate the emergence of the phenomenon of gender differences in society. In particular examines the concept of "gender", "gender identity", "the sex-role identity", "gender stereotypes", "gender-scheme" "auto-stereotypes", "hetero-stereotypes", "gender-role socialization", "gender segregation" and others from the point of view of foreign researchers of gender. Also discusses the characteristics of male and female sex-role identity associated with the occurrence of stereotypically. Red thread on article is the idea that gender schema as cognitive categories of gender begin to manage the processes of processing of the information we receive such a way that we begin to perceive, memorize and to interpret it in accordance with our ideas about the genders.
Questions related to special features of gender and psychological differences, in recent years are among the most actively discussed in society. Although the term "gender" (social gender, as a product of culture) appeared in 1975 (which is relatively recently), in science and the previously existed research and ideas of sexual dimorphism. "Gender" in psychology refers to socio-biological characteristic by which people define the concepts of "man" and "woman".
Psychologists prefer to use the term "gender", thereby emphasizing that many of the differences between men and women are created by culture, whereas the word "sex" implies that all differences are a direct consequence of biological sex. For the average person gender is an important social category, through which he processes information about people around him.
To deny the existence of the phenomenon of gender differences is illogical, and numerous studies conducted on this issue, it should be considered justified and necessary, but nevertheless these differences cannot be overstated.
Today in the media and on television often use the theme that men and women are creatures from different planets, speaking different languages. The authors of such programs deliberately prefer not to notice the huge amount of proven scientific research of the facts, telling us that men and women have more similarities than differences. Apparently, society, and the media are interested in how to perpetuate a myth about existence in the world of creatures, different in appearance and having substantial differences. I.e. we see men and women a lot more differences than they actually have, and it's not in the differences themselves, and the particularities of social cognition gender.
It is known that inherent in us from birth strategies of information processing, and especially our tendency to categorize, influence our perception of others. In order to bring our diverse external world to cognitive perceivable form, we will distribute incoming information for certain categories. Thus, it is formed a specific cognitive structures called schemas. These schemas influence the perception, storage and playback of incoming external information. In short, these schemas direct the processing of information. Usually we have the ready cognitive categories for most social situations (event-driven schemes), for people who are familiar to us (personal scheme), and for social groups identified on the basis of gender, ethnicity and occupation (role schema) [1].
This category direct the processing of incoming information about people and situations. Most people believe that perception is direct copy of objective data. However, the concept of schema is based on the fact that systematic prior knowledge (schema) affect the active construction of social reality. While objective data form what you perceive, your beliefs and expectations shape the way you see this information. But nowadays most people even with niesiolowski education know that the accumulated General knowledge about categories of people do not allow fair to judge about the unique qualities of the individual.
In 1954, psychologist Gordon Allport [2] noticed that, when faced with information overload, people allocate people into categories as objects and situations, is stereotypization. Currently stereotypes are seen by many social psychologists as cognitive categories (schemas) social groups. Stereotypes is a widespread view that members of identifiable groups are similar to each other, working as a schema in the perception of these groups. Common stereotypes of men are active, aggressive and effective, and women as passive, dependent and emotional (Bergen and D. J. Williams [3]). They are the results of studies that demonstrate that the most stereotypical gender differences are too small to expect their regular manifestations [4]. The researchers agree that gender stereotypes arise on the basis of gender roles. Established patterns serve as norms for women and men and are models for gender-role socialization [4,5]. I.e. according to these studies, the distribution of genders in different social roles leads to some social norms, in which women and men behave in a certain way: it is expected that women are more sensitive, expressive and emotional than men, and men masculine, independent, assertive.
In a short study we will also try to dispel some of the stereotypes about the essential differences of men and women.
Gender identity, sex-role identification, and other mechanisms that affect the psyche of people of different sex
The identification with certain floors, the development of appropriate forms of behavior and formation of personal characteristics is the formation of gender identity [6]. Features male and female sex-role identification specifically affect the individual's position in society, his personal and professional life.
This is because different social roles of men and women suggest they have a different psychological qualities and capabilities. Moreover, in our society too often says about the fundamental differences between women and men. And most importantly, inherent in us from birth strategies of information processing can also contribute to the exaggeration of the scale of the differences between the genders.
Gender stereotypes appear here as a gender schema. Gender schema: cognitive categories of gender begin to manage the processing of incoming information in such a way that we begin to perceive, remember and interpret it in accordance with our perceptions of genders.
Consider how gender schemas and how they can influence on gender identification. So, the breakdown of the constituent elements of the surrounding world into categories begins in childhood and is the essence of the process of cognitive development. To facilitate the assimilation of a vast amount of information, children resort to categorization.
Gender acts as an important criterion for categorization is partly because in our society we are constantly told about the importance of gender differences. TV, literature and folklore often depict men and women are creatures, absolutely different from each other. Parents, teachers and peers are also often pushed the children to pay particular attention to gender, and as a consequence of those thoughts that men and women differ not only in the genitals. Children notice that men and women strive to look different and do different things. This belief is formed from the observation of such members of society, such as their parents.
Over time, children begin to classify people, their behavior and characteristics from the point of view of their belonging to "male" or "female" categories. In the mind of the child arise "gender schema of their own group" and "gender schema of another group". When an object (or its behavior) is classified as belonging to the opposite sex, it is usually not attract much attention of the child. In this regard, children are more likely to show interest and desire to model actions typical for their own gender. Thus the gender schema is fixed in the mind of the child. This scheme consists of scenarios and action plans necessary to implement behaviours associated with gender. As soon as children are able to identify their gender, they have the motivation to be similar to other members of their group, they begin to more carefully observe accepted in their group behaviour.
When an object (or its behavior) is classified as belonging to the opposite sex, it is usually not attract much attention of the child. Even the child who starts correctly identify your gender, you may receive the disposition on the basis of his knowledge of a very limited number of people (with certain features), to ascribe these characteristics to all the men and women. In this case, it may come to the erroneous perception of a strong link between gender and behavior, characteristics or skills, so there are primary gender stereotypes.
In a further choice of children of this or that type of behaviour or formation of their own preferences largely corresponds to their awareness of gender stereotypes.
In this connection the tendency of boys to play with boys and girls with girls begins to emerge in children at approximately three years of age and gradually increases until the entry into puberty. This process is called gender segregation, and he is fully dependent on gender stereotypes. Gender segregation is also stimulated by differences in socialization processes: this leads to the fact that boys and girls prefer different games, different toys and be interested in different things.
The concept of Sandra BEM, also called the gender schema S. BEM, reflects the existence of three types of people with different gender identity:
1)with a predominance of feminine characteristics, 2)with a predominance of masculine characteristics
3)with a predominance of "androgynous" traits (those who observed the balance of masculine and feminine characteristics, i.e. moderate, average this was understood to androgyny) [7].
Until the 70s of the twentieth century manifestation of the "masculine" traits in women and "feminine" traits in men were for psychologists a source of concern. And among the people, far from psychology, this understanding is widespread now and it is because of him people are confused when their children show interest and behavior typical of the opposite sex. However, studies of American psychologists do not confirm the statement that the deviation from sex-role standards entails psychological mismatch [8]. Indeed, according to the concept of Boehm [7], mental health should not have a gender, and androgyny has a positive effect on the psychological state of a person.
The organization of mini-research
Mini-study examines the influence of gender stereotypes on the perception of males and females and the real gender difference in some psychological aspects. The total sample of the study was 60 students (students 3 and 4 courses of the faculty of philosophy and political science KazNU. Al-Farabi), male – 15, female – 45 people.
Materials and methods
For the organization of mini-studies was used:
- Method interviews with representatives of male and female students at the University, e. with both male and female students.
- Projective test Heckhausen on the measurement of achievement motivation – for diagnostics of motivation of success and fear of Test Heckhausen or TAT (variant of Hekhauzen) is aimed at diagnostics of two motives — the hope of success (WELL) and fear of failure (bn). The two motifs believed to be related with achievement motivation. Hope of success (COS) is a positive motivation, reflecting the installation of the subject at the success, whereas fear of failure (bn) is linked to the negative setting of the subject and has a lot to do with the motivation of avoidance.
Required material: 6 images TAT (the"business" version of X. Hekhauzen is designed to explore three types of motivation [9]: a) achieve (D); b) power (C); C) affiliations (A) needs for love, attachment, group membership).
- Sex-role questionnaire of Sandra BEM [10] as the most widely used tool for measuring how a grown man evaluates himself from the point of view of
The procedure is mini-research, processing and interpretation of results
- The interview results were processed by comparing the fixed answers of the representatives of the male and female
- In the sex-role questionnaire of Sandra BEM respondents are encouraged to note in the list of those qualities which, in their opinion, they Given a list of qualities consisting of 60 items arranged alternately. For example, such qualities: belief in yourself; learn to compromise; the ability to help; tendency to defend their views; cheerfulness; gloominess; independence; modesty; conscientiousness; athlete; tenderness; theatricality; assertiveness, etc.
Each of the qualities the respondents to rate on a 7-point scale based on how accurately it describes it. Twenty adjectives from this list are the scale of masculinity, another twenty are at the scale of femininity, and the remaining twenty neutral: jealous(-th), reliable(-ae), serious(-th), with great esteem, tactful(-th).
People who have the highest number of points as on a scale of masculinity and femininity scale, is considered to be androgynous; those who scored high on the femininity scale, but low on the scale of masculinity, is considered to be feminine; the same, whose score on a scale of masculinity much higher than the results on the scale of femininity, is considered to be masculine. The term "undifferentiated" in the questionnaire indicated those who scored equally low scores, on a scale of masculinity and femininity scale. The sex-typed person we call, whose determination and behavior coincide with what is considered his society was gender-appropriate.
- When using projective techniques TAT: pictures sequentially presented to the subject from the first to the sixth (he looks at each 10-15 ).
Given a clear instruction: "You will be asked 6 images. Look within 10 seconds at the first picture, then approximately 4 minutes to write an essay — a short story for this picture. Describe how you think, what preceded the events depicted in the picture, what you feel and think in the moment, the participants of the events, how these events will develop in the future. Then go to the second picture, etc., including the sixth".
First, subjects were asked, as well as in the classic TAT, to make coherent stories based on the pictures. The theme of the pictures was quite specific and was related to achievement. Secondly, a projective test of Heckhausen on the measurement of achievement motivation was used in three variants: under neutral conditions, using stimulus (motivating statement) and using social incentives.
The results of mini-research
- We describe the results of interviews with representatives of both When interviewing with representatives of both males and females studying at University we found evidence favorable attitude towards their gender group of male and female students, especially when we asked the subjects to identify which characteristics are associated with women and some with men.
The analysis of the interview and the oral fixation of answers of respondents we were able to establish that the majority of students (82.2 percent) consistently showed a more positive attitude to women than the one that showed the majority of students (73.3 per cent) compared to women. Also the majority of students (=87%) also consistently showed a more positive attitude towards men than the one that showed female students (64.6 per cent) compared to men.
In response to the question, in which males and females evaluated the characteristic human qualities, it became clear that students evaluated the quality is higher in those cases where they were told that it is more characteristic of their sex.
Also we found some convergence of young men and women about his own and the opposite sex (in gender psychology of gender, they are called auto and heterostereotype) and more frequent mismatches.
Here are a few examples in which sex differences are found. According to the majority of representatives of both floors (93,3% of girls and 80% boys): 1) women are impulsive, emotional, cheerful, laugh a lot, longer experiencing sadness, love to talk and are pleasant companions, among them more than those who never do not drink alcohol, prudent, gentle and caring towards their children; prone to talking mainly about people; in sickness try to stay positive and patient; 2) men cautious, less emotional, calm and thorough, sensible; independent in his views; tell briefly, strictly adhering to the topic; more often satisfied with their abilities and behavior; prone to talking mainly about the phenomena and the objective world; love games that require work of the mind, and more risky gambling.
The discrepancy between auto and heterostereotypes both sexes are represented in the following characteristics.
The opinion of the majority of the girls (88.8 per cent) of women (compared with men): more persistent in the exercise of their intent; attentive during lessons and during the occupation in any case; when you receive a job immediately proceed to business; I love the neatness and order; truthful; punctual (not late, on time hand over of the job); show the vehemence in conversation; good-natured; changeable in mood; more interested in new experiences and new friends; I love trying new things, easy to perceive new; a practical and easily find the exit from a difficult situation; Supervisory; more prone to self-criticism and recognize the superiority of others; polite; have a beautiful and speech. The majority of young men (73,2%) claim that both sexes are the same.
The opinion of the majority of the girls (97.7 percent) of the males (compared to females) after the flash of anger immediately put up, and some time upset; holding on to old habits; have a good memory; are more accurate memorization and reproduction of information; punctual. Boys (93,3%) once again see no differences between the sexes.
The opinion of more than half of respondents-boys (66.6 per cent) of the representatives of the female sex: a lover of cleanliness and order; frivolous, i.e., inclined to hope that everything is settled (this is one of the biggest mismatches, the divergence of opinion is almost 100%).
As you can see from the interview results gender stereotypes are changing, but differently for males and females. So, if the stereotype of femininity developed in the nineteenth century, remains still popular (especially among males): the woman should be gentle, beautiful, soft, gentle and at the same time, passive and dependent. Then, on presentation of themselves and future women, they have to be intelligent, considered, energetic, enterprising, to possess male qualities.
- Projective test Heckhausen on the measurement of achievement motivation was used in three Let us recall them: 1) under neutral conditions, 2) using the stimulus (motivating statement) and 3) using social incentives.
The first option was the neutral condition: subjects were asked to write stories on the TAT technique (based on the presented images). In this case, the majority of female students (82.2 percent) showed a higher achievement motivation than male students (60%).
The second option is called "motivational manual". First, respondents were given an incentive to achieve success in the form of special instructions: it was reported that he will solve problems (anagrams), which test not only intelligence but also leadership ability (ability to organize material and to quickly and accurately assess the situation). Then, the subjects were stories to TAT pictures, and then solved the problems-anagrams. It turned out that in this case are the young men (93.3%) of achievement motivation increased (they responded to encourage user manual), and the girls – no (just 17.7% shown in this embodiment, the presence of a motive of hope of success).
A third option was the use of social incentives associated with the adoption of the individual by other group members. Here the results were completely different: both boys and girls increased their indicators of achievement motivation, but boys – slightly (73.2 per cent showed a motif well), and the girls there was a sharp growth of this indicator (in 91.1% of students are in this embodiment was shown the brighter hope of success).
Thus, we can say that the females showed higher motivation achievements in the neutral conditions, and the young men to bolster the motivation needed special achievement (intellectual leadership) stimulation. In addition, girls to motivate the necessary social incentives (related to the adoption group). I.e. the motive of the avoidance (or fear) of success is not found in females (as suggested by the developers at the time), while certain conditions stimulate them to hope for success, i.e., marked differences in achievement motivation for males and females is not detected. In our view, these trends erase gender differences in motivation related to modern conditions of competition in various fields and the same orientation of students, caused by dynamics and mobility of modern society.
- Processing the sex-role questionnaire of Sandra BEM on the study of masculinity – femininity showed that the highest scores on a scale of masculinity gained students of the 4th course, the most feminine of the third – year student, androgynous young men enrolled in the 3rd Thus from the total sample (60 students) sex-typed was only 18.3% of students. I.e. modern students increasingly exhibit traits that are in demand in the society, girls are becoming less feminine and men more androgynous.
The concept of androgyny implies that some of welcome qualities are "masculine" and some "feminine", because it radically contradicts our intention to reduce gender polarization.
Conclusion
So, our perception of genders as "opposites" is not confirmed by the results of our mini-research on gender differences. Theoretically, we are almost convinced that is inherent in us from birth strategies of information processing may contribute to the exaggeration of gender differences.
Theory, which States that the person belongs to the group much kinder than others, and it allows him to gain self-esteem, is called the theory of social identity. As a result of interviews with men and women we have seen that this theory is valid. But this theory is completely built on the basis of gender schemas and stereotypes. I.e., the interview confirmed the presence of gender stereotypes among students.
I n the end we can conclude the following: if we have expectations of the genders, we are more likely to notice and remember all the cases, confirming our expectations. This will be due to the fact that our expectations act as a scheme.
Conduct educational conversations with students about gender stereotypes and a reminder that in cases when people resort to such stereotypes, also help to get rid of gender bias. The impact of the schemes can be significantly reduced in cases when people start to realize how the scheme can make them biased thinking, and when they begin to think about examples that do not fit into the framework of the scheme. It is very important that both gender when assessing the behaviour of each other would resort to stereotypes.
We must not forget also that the underlining of gender differences contributes to the formation of prejudice against their group and biased to a stranger and provokes conflicts between the genders. Teachers and parents should create children an environment in which gender equality reigns, to model equitable gender-role attitudes and to prevent the occurrence of gender stereotypes portrayed in the media.
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